microprocessor
#1

presented by:
Shyam Kumar
Uddhav Shendurnikar
Upkar Chauhan
Vishakha Nigam

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INTRODUCTION
 It is the heart of a microcomputer system.
 It is a programmable integrated device that has computing & decision making capability similar to CPU.
 It comprises of three parts- ALU, control unit, register file.
 These are connected with data bus, control bus & internal bus
 It communicates &operates in binary nos. 0 & 1 called bits.
 Each μP has a fixed set of instructions in form of binary patterns called machine language.
 Binary nos are given abbreviated names for interpreting human beings called mnemonics.
 It can be instructed to perform given tasks within its capability. A programmer can select instructions & ask the μP to perform various tasks on a given set of data
Control Unit
 The control unit, as described above, reads the instructions, and generates the necessary digital signals to operate the other components.
Arithmetic Logic Unit
 ALU is the part of the microprocessor that performs arithmetic operations. ALUs can
 typically add, subtract, divide, multiply, and perform logical operations of two numbers like AND, OR, X-OR.
Registers
 Anything that can be used to store bits of information, in a way that all the bits of the register can be written to or read out simultaneously.
 The registers are the fastest accessible memory locations, and because they are so fast, there are typically very few of them. In most processors, there are fewer than 32 registers.
 The size of the registers defines the size of the computer
Types of Processors
 The vast majority of microprocessors are embedded microcontrollers. The second most common type of processors are common desktop processors, such as Intel's Pentium or AMD's Athlon.
 Microprocessors come in "standard sizes" of 8 bits, 16 bits, 32 bits, and 64 bits. Some microprocessors come in other "non-standard" sizes such as 4 bits, 12 bits, 18 bits &24bits
 The number of bits represent how much physical memory can be directly addressed by the CPU & amount of bits that can be read by one read/write operation.
 for ex- 8 bit processors can read/write 1 byte at a time and can directly address 256 bytes
 In reprogrammable systems microprocessor is used for computing & data processing. such as disks , CD-ROMs, printers
 In embedded systems, microprocessor is a part of a final product & not available for reprogramming to end user such as photo copy machine
General Purpose Versus Specific Use
 Microprocessors that are capable of performing a wide range of tasks are called general purpose microprocessors. These are typically the kind of CPUs found in desktop computer systems.
 DSP (digital signal microprocessor) is a chip that is specifically designed for fast arithmetic operations, especially addition and multiplication. These chips are designed with processing speed in mind.
 "microcontrollers" are microprocessors with additional hardware integrated into a single chip. Many microcontrollers have RAM, ROM, A/D and D/A converters, interrupt controllers, timers and even oscillators built into the chip itself.
 Computer graphics are so complicated that functions to process the visuals of video and game applications have been offloaded to a special type of processor.
Types of Use
 Signal Processing
 Signal processing is an area that demands high performance from microcontroller chips to perform complex mathematical tasks. Ex- decoding of digital television and radio signals.
 Real Time Applications
 Some tasks need to be performed so quickly that even the slightest delay or inefficiency can be detrimental. These applications are known as "real time systems“. Ex- anti-lock braking system (ABS) controller in modern automobiles.
 Throughput and Routing
 It uses where data is moved from one particular input
 to an output, without necessarily requiring any processing.
 An example is an internet router, that reads in data
 packets and sends them out on a different port.
 Sensor monitoring
 Many processors, especially small embedded processors
 are used to monitor sensors. The microprocessor will either
 digitize and filter the sensor signals, or it will read the signals
 &produce status outputs.
 Graphics
 Processing of digital graphics is an area where specialized
 processor units are frequently employed. With the advent of
 digital television, graphics processors are becoming more
 common. In digital video, a million pixels or more need to be
 processed for every single frame
Abstraction Layers
 Computer systems are developed in layers known as layers of abstraction.
 It allow people to develop computer components (hardware and software) without having to worry about the internal design of the other layers in the system.
 At the highest level are the user-interface programs that people use on their computers.
 At the lowest level are the transistor layouts of the individual computer components.
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MICROPROCESSOR EVOLUTION
WHAT IS MICRO PROCESSOR ?

At abstract level, we can think as a small silicon chip that contains a CPU.
In the world of personal computers, the terms microprocessor and CPU are used interchangeably.
Microprocessors also control the logic of almost all digital devices, from clock radios to fuel-injection systems for automobiles.
WHY DO WE CALL THIS SILICON CHIP AS MICROPROCESSOR ?
The word MICROPROCESSOR can be break into two parts
Micro
Processor
Here micro indicates each component in this IC occupies only few microns of space while integration.
This is possible because of ULSI Technology where millions of components fix into a single chip.
Processor word indicates, this Digital IC is capable of perform operations like processing, controlling and much more.
Thus Microprocessors referred as the “Brain Of A Computer”.
Most of the time Microprocessor even referred as µp, Because of its size and operation.
WHO INVENTED THIS FIRST MICROPROCESSOR ?
Intel 4004 - The World's First Single Chip Microprocessor
In November, 1971, a company called Intel publicly introduced the world's first single chip microprocessor
The Intel 4004 invented by Intel engineers Federico Faggin, Ted Hoff, and Stan Mazor.
After the invention of integrated circuit revolutionized computer design,
The Intel 4004 chip took the integrated circuit down one step further by placing all the parts that made a computer think (i.e. central processing unit, memory, input and output controls) on one small chip. 
WHAT WAS THEN ?
After huge success , Demand for faster and smarter processor increased.
Then along with INTEL, new companies emerged
AMD (Advanced Micro Devices)
NEC (Nippon Electric Company)
Mitsubishi
OKI( Kibataro Oki Companies)
Siemens
Toshiba
USSR
Each company has its own advantages and disadvantages over each other.
HOW CAN WE SAY THIS PROCESSOR IS GOOD ?
On basis of three main factors we can conclude advancement of processors
Instruction set: The set of instructions that the microprocessor can execute.
Bandwidth : The number of bits processed in a single instruction.
Clock Speed :  clock speed determines how many instructions per second the processor  can execute
In addition to bandwidth and clock speed, microprocessors are classified as being either RISC (reduced instruction set computer) or CISC (complex instruction set computer).
INTEL FAMILY LIST
INTEL 8086-Features
8086 has 16-bit ALU; this means 16-bit numbers are directly processed It has 16-bit data bus, so it can read data or write data to memory or I/O ports either 16 bits or 8 bits at a time.
It has 20 address lines, so it can address up to 220 i.e. 1048576 = 1Mbytes of memory (words i.e. 16 bit numbers are stored in consecutive memory locations). Due to the 1Mbytes memory size multiprogramming is made feasible as well as several multiprogramming features have been incorporated in 8086 design.
8086 includes few features, which enhance multiprocessing capability (it can be used with math coprocessors like 8087, I/O processor 8089 etc).
Operates on +5v supply and single phase (single line) clock frequency.(Clock is generated by separate peripheral chip 8284).
8086 comes with different versions. 8086 runs at 5 MHz, 8086-2 runs at 8 MHz, 8086-1 runs at 10 MHz.
It comes in 40-pin configuration with HMOS technology having around 20,000 transistors in its circuitry.
It has multiplexed address and data bus like 8085 due to which the pin count is Reduced considerably.
Higher Throughput (Speed) (This is achieved by a concept called pipelining).

INTEL PENTIUM PROCESSOR-FEATURES
The Intel 8085 processor can execute only one instruction at a time. With superscalar execution, the Pentium processor can sometimes execute two instructions simultaneously.
Pipelining, allows the processor to overlap multiple instructions so that it takes less time to execute two instructions in a row. Because of its superscalar architecture, the Pentium processor has two independent processor pipelines.
64-Bit Bus: With its 64-bit-wide external data bus the Pentium processor
Floating-Point Optimization: The Pentium processor executes individual instructions faster through execution pipelining, which allows multiple floating-point instructions to be executed at the same time.
WHAT MAKES PENTIUM MUCH POPULAR THAN OTHER ?
Pentium processors become popular because of its Enhanced features and the capability.
uP CAPABLITIES AND FEATURES CAN BE INCREASED
By increasing the clock frequency
By increasing the word-width
By having a more effective caching Algorithm and the right cache size
By adding more functional units (e.g. ALU’s, FPU’s, Vector/SIMD units, etc.)
Improving the architecture.
By fabrication of uP using some advanced nano material to decrease heat generation.
By using multi core instead of single core processors
MULTI CORE PROCESSORS
Processors were originally developed with only one core.
The core is the part of the processor that actually performs the reading and executing of instructions.
A multi-core processor is a single component with two or more independent actual processors  in a single chip package.
A multi-core processor Implements  multiprocessing in a single physical package.
Designers may couple cores in a multi-core device tightly or loosely.
 For example, cores may or may not share caches, and they may implement message passing or shared memory inter-core communication methods. 
Common network topologies to interconnect cores include bus, ring, 2-dimensional mesh, and crossbar
Multi-core processors are widely used across many application domains including general-purpose , embedded, network, digital signal processing (DSP), and graphics.
The improvement in performance gained by the use of a multi-core processor depends very much on the software algorithms used and their implementation.
In particular, possible gains are limited by the fraction of the software that can be parallelized to run on multiple cores simultaneously; 
In the best case, so-called embarrassingly parallel problems may realize speedup factors near the number of cores, or even more if the problem is split up enough to fit within each core's cache
The parallelization of software is a significant ongoing topic of research . use of much slower main system memory.
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