digital signature full report

[computer science technology]

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INTRODUCTION
Digital signature is a sort of Cryptography. Cryptography means keeping communications private. It is a practical art of converting messages or data into a different form, such that no one read them without having access to the Ëœkeyâ„¢. The message may be converted using a Ëœcodeâ„¢ (in which case each character or group of characters is substituted by an alternative one), or Ëœcipherâ„¢ (in which case the message as a whole is converted, rather than individual characters). It deals with encryption, decryption and authentication.
There are two types of Cryptography-
1.Secret key or Symmetric Cryptography
2. Public key or Asymmetric Cryptography
In Symmetric Cryptography the sender and receiver of a message know and use the same secret key to encrypt the message, and the receiver uses same key to decrypt the message.
Asymmetric (or public key) Cryptography involves two related keys, one of which only the owner knows (the 'private key') and the other which anyone can know (the 'public key').
The advantages of Asymmetric Cryptography are that:
¢ Only one party needs to know the private key.
¢ The knowledge of the public key by a third party does not compromise security of message transmission.
The most important development from the work on public “key cryptography is Digital Signature.
Why Digital Signature:
Message authentication protects two parties who exchange messages from any third party. However it does not protect two parties against each other. Several forms of disputes between the two are possible.
For example suppose that john sends an authenticated message to Mary,using one of the schemes.Following dispute that could arise :
1. Mary may forge a different message and claim that it can come from John.Mary would simply have to create a message and append an authentication code using the key that John and Mary share.
2. John can deny sending the message.Because it is possible for Mary to forge a message there is no way to prove that John did in fact send the message.
Both scenarios are of legitmate concern.Here is an example of the first scenario:An electronic fund transfer take place and the receiver increases the amount of fund transferred and claims that larger amount had arrived from the sender.An example of the second scenarios is that an electronic mail message contains instruction to a stockbroker for a transdaction that subsequently turns out badly.The sender pretend that the message never sent.
In situation where there is not complete trust between sender and receiver,something more than authentication is needed .The most attractive solution to this problem is the digital signature .The digital signature is analogus to the handwritten signature.It must have the following properties:
Properties :
¢ It must verify the author and the date and time of signature .
¢ It must authenticate the contents at the time of signature.
¢ It must be verifiable by third parties,to resolve disputes.
Thus the digital function includes the authentication function.

Requirements :
On the basis of these prpperties ,we can formulate the following reqirements for a digital signature:
¢ The signature must be a bit pattern that depends on the message of being signed.
¢ The signature must use some information uniqe to sender ,to prevent both forgery and denial.
¢ It must be relatively easy to produce the digital signature .
¢ It must be relatively easy to recognize and verify the digital signature.
¢ It must be computationally infeasible to forge a digital signature ,either by constructing a new massage for an existing digital signature or by constructing a fraudulent digital signature for a given message.
¢ It must be practical to return a copy of the digital signature in storage.
A secure hash function ,embedded in a scheme such as that of figure satifies these reqirements.
What is digital signature:
Basically, the idea behind digital signatures is the same as your handwritten signature. You use it to authenticate the fact that you promised something that you can't take back later. A digital signature doesn't involve signing something with a pen and paper then sending it over the Internet. But like a paper signature, it attaches the identity of the signer to a transaction. Having a digital certificate is like using your driver's license to verify your identity. You may have obtained your license from Maryland, for example, but your Maryland license lets you drive in Nevada and Florida. Similarly, your digital certificate proves your online identity to anybody who accepts it.
A digital signature can also be used to verify that information has not been altered after it was signed. A digital signature is an electronic signature to be used in all imaginable type of electronic transfer. Digital signature significantly differs from other electronic signatures in term of process and results. These differences make digital signature more serviceable for legal purposes.

Digital signatures are based on mathematical algorithms. These require the signature holder to have two keys (one private and the public) for signing and verification .A verifiable trustworthy entity called certification authority creates and distributes signatures. A digital signature is a cryptographic means through which many of these may be verified. The digital signature of a document is a piece of information based on both the document and the signer™s private key. It is typically created through the use of a hash function and a private signing function (encrypting with the signer™s private key). Digital Signatures and hand “ written signatures both rely on the fact that it is very hard to find two people with the same signature. People use public “key cryptography to compute digital signatures by associating something unique with each person. When public-key cryptography is used to encrypt a message, the sender encrypts the message with the public key of the intended recipient. When public -key cryptography is used to calculate a digital signature, the sender encrypts the digital fingerprint of the document with his or her own private key. Anyone with access to the public key of the signer may verify the signature.
In practice, public-key algorithms are often too inefficient for signing long documents. To save time, digital signature protocols use a cryptographic digest, which is a one-way hash of the document. The hash is signed instead of the document itself. Both the hashing and digital signature algorithms are agreed upon beforehand. Here is a summary of the process:
1. A one-way hash of the document is produced.
2. The hash is encrypted with the private key, thereby signing the document.
3. The document and the signed hash are transmitted.
4. The recipient produces a one-way hash of the document.
5. Using the digital signature algorithm, the recipient decrypts the signed hash with the sender's public key.
If the signed hash matches the recipient's hash, the signature is valid and the document is intact.
There is a potential problem with this type of digital signature. Alice not only signed the message she intended to but also signed all other messages that happen to hash to the same message digest. When two messages hash to the same message digest it is called a collision; the collision-free properties of hash functions are a necessary security requirement for most digital signature schemes. A hash function is secure if it is very time consuming, if at all possible, to figure out the original message given its digest. However, there is an attack called the birthday attack that relies on the fact that it is easier to find two messages that hash to the same value than to find a message that hashes to a particular value. Its name arises from the fact that for a group of 23 or more people the probability that two or more people share the same birthday is better than 50%.
When software (code) is associated with publisherâ„¢s unique signature, distributing software on the Internet is no longer an anonymous activity. Digital signatures ensure accountability, just as a manufacturerâ„¢s brand name does on packaged software. If an organization or individual wants to use the Internet to distribute software, they should be willing to take responsibility for that software. This is based on the premise that accountability is a deterrent to the distribution of harmful code.
APPROACHES
A variety of approaches have been proposed for digital signature function. These approaches fall into two categories:
¢ Direct approach
¢ Arbitrated approach
Direct digital signature:
A direct digital signature involves only the communication parties (source and destination). It is assumed that the destination knows the public key of the source. A digital signature may be formed by encrypting the entire message with the senderâ„¢s private key or by encrypting the hash code of the message with the senderâ„¢s private key.
Confidentiality can be provided by further encrypting the entire message plus signature with either the receiverâ„¢s public key or a shared secret key. It is important to perform the signature function first and then an outer confidentiality function. In case of dispute some third party must view the message and signature. If the signature is calculated on an encrypted message, the third party also needs access to the decryption key to read the original message.
All direct schemes described so far have a common flaw:
The validity of the scheme depends on the security of the senderâ„¢s private key. If a sender later wishes to deny sending a particular message, he can claim that the private key was lost or stolen and that someone else forged his signature.
Administrative controls relating to the security of private keys can be employed to thwart or at least weaken this ploy. One example is to require every signed message to include a timestamp (date and time) and to require prompt reporting to compromise keys by a central authority. Another threat is that the private key might be stolen from sender X at time T. The opponent can then send a message signed with Xâ„¢s signature and stamped with a time before or equal to T.
Arbitrated digital signature:
The problems associated with direct digital signatures can be addressed by using an arbiter. As with direct signature schemes, there are a variety of arbitrated signature schemes. In general terms, these all operate as follows: every signed message from sender X to the receiver Y goes first to the arbiter A, who subjects the message and its signature to the number of tests to check its origin and content. The message is then dated and sends to Y with an indication that it has been verified to the satisfaction of the arbiter. With the presence of arbiter A, there are no chances of a sender X to disowning the message, as is the case with the direct digital signatures.
The arbiter plays a crucial role in arbitrated digital signatures and all parties must have a great deal of trust that the arbitration mechanism working properly. The use of a trusted system might satisfy this requirement.
HOW THE TECHNOLOGY WORKS :

Digital signatures require the use of public-key cryptography .If you are going to sign something, digitally, you need to obtain both a public key and a private key. The private key is something you keep entirely to yourself. You sign the document using your private key- which is really just a kind of code-then you give the person (the merchant of the website where you bought something or the bank lending your money to buy a house) who needs to verify your signature your corresponding public key. He uses your public key to make sure you are who you say you are. The public key and private key are related, but only mathematically, so knowing your private key. In fact, itâ„¢s nearly impossible to figure out your private key from your public key.
The sender accomplishes the process of creating a digital signature. The receiver of the digital signature performs the verification of the digital signature.
DIGITAL SIGNATURE STANDARD :
The National Institute of Standards and Technology has published Federal Information processing standards Publications (FIPS PUBS), known as digital signature standard. The DSS makes use of the Secure Hash Algorithm (SHA) and present a new digital signature technique called the Digital Signature Algorithm (DSA) appropriate for applications requiring a digital rather than written signature. The DSA digital signature is a pair of large numbers represented in a computer as strings of binary digits. The digital signature is computed using a set of rules (i.e., the DSA) and a set of parameters such that the identity of the signatory and integrity of the data can be verified. The DSA provides the capability to generate and verify signatures. Signature generation makes use of a private key to generate a digital signature. Signature Verification makes use of a public key, which corresponds to, but is not the same as, the private key. Each user possesses a private and public key pair. Public keys are assumed signatures for stored as well as transmitted data. Anyone can verify the signature of a user by employing that user's public key. Signature generation can be performed only by the possessor of the user's private key.
A hash function is used in the signature generation process to obtain a condensed version of data, called a message digest (see Figure 1). The message digest is then input to the DSA to generate the digital signature. The digital signature is sent to the intended verifier along with the signed data (often called the message). The verifier of the message and signature verifies the signature by using the sender's public key. The same hash function must also be used in the verification process. The hash function is specified in a separate standard, the Secure Hash Standard (SHS), FIPS 180. Similar procedures may be used to generate and verify signatures for stored as well as transmitted data.

Figure 1: Using the SHA with the DSA
The DSA authenticates the integrity of the signed data and the identity of the signatory. The DSA may also be used in proving to a third party that data was actually signed by the generator of the signature. The DSA is intended for use in electronic mail, electronic funds transfer, electronic data exchange, software distribution, data storage, and other applications which require data integrity assurance and data origin authentication.
The DSA may be implemented in software, firmware, hardware, or any combination thereof. NIST is developing a validation program to test implementations for conformance to this standard.

THE ALGORITHM:
The digital signature algorithm is as follows:
GLOBAL PUBLIC-KEY COMPONENTS:
1. p = a prime number, where 2L-1 < p < 2L for 512 = < L = <1024 and L a multiple of 64
2. q = a prime divisor of p - 1, where 2159 < q < 2160
3. g = h(p-1)/q mod p, where h is any integer with 1 < h < p - 1 such that h(p-1)/q mod P>1
(g has order q mod p)
THE USERâ„¢S PRIVATE KEY:
x = a randomly or pseudorandomly generated integer with 0 < x < q
USERâ„¢S PUBLIC KEY:
y = gx mod p
USERâ„¢S PER-MESSAGE SECRET NUMBER:
k = a randomly or pseudorandomly generated integer with 0 < k < q
The integers p, q, and g can be public and can be common to a group of users. A user's private and public keys are x and y, respectively. They are normally fixed for a period of time. Parameters x and k are used for signature generation only, and must be kept secret. Parameter k must be regenerated for each signature.
DIGITAL SIGNATURE GENERATION:
To begin with the process, a check (message) must be created. In order to create a digital signature with the check, a process known as hash function must occur. The hash function is a mathematical algorithm that creates a digital representation or fingerprint in the form of a hash result or message digest. The hash function generally has a standard length that is usually much smaller than the message but nevertheless substantially unique to it. Hash functions ensure that there have been no modifications to the check since it was digitally signed.
The next step is to encrypt the check and signature. The senderâ„¢ signature software transforms the result into a digital signature using the sender private key. The resulting signature is thus unique to both the message and the private key used to create it. Typically, a digital-signature is appended to its message and stored or transmitted with the message. However, it may also be sent or stored as a separate data element, so long as it maintains a reliable association with its message. Since a digital signature is unique to its message, it is useless when wholly disassociated from the message.
Now the question arises how do one get a private and a public key The answer is: You need to obtain something called a digital certificate. For that, you go to a certificate issuer, which will give you a digital certificate that says, in effect, "Here is Mike, and here is his public key. Anything he signs with his corresponding private key is valid." When you buy something online and digitally sign the transaction, you provide the merchant with your digital certificate. If the merchant trusts the issuer of the certificate, he uses the certificate to verify your signature. Often the authority that provides you with a digital certificate will also provide you with a private key. Certain computer systems will let you generate your own private key, but be careful! That is where the potential for fraud comes in. It's considered impossible to forge a digital signature the way one can forge a paper signature, but if you are careless with your private key”leaving it unprotected on your desktop, for instance”it's possible for you to compromise its integrity.
Mathematically
The signature of a message M is the pair of numbers r and s computed according to the equations below:
r = (gk mod p) mod q and
s = (k-1(SHA(M) + xr)) mod q.

In the above, k-1 is the multiplicative inverse of k, mod q; i.e., (k-1 k) mod q = 1 and 0 < k-1 < q.
M is a message to be signed and the value of SHA (M) is a 160-bit string output by the Secure Hash Algorithm specified in FIPS 180. For use in computing s, this string must be converted to an integer.
As an option, one may wish to check if r = 0 or s = 0. If either r = 0 or s = 0, a new value of k should be generated and the signature should be recalculated (it is extremely unlikely that r = 0 or s = 0 if signatures are generated properly).
The signature is transmitted along with the message to the verifier.
SIGNATURE VERIFICATION:
Prior to verifying the signature in a signed message, p, q and g plus the sender's public key and identity are made available to the verifier in an authenticated manner.
Let M', r' and s' be the received versions of M, r, and s, respectively, and let y be the public key of the signatory. To verifier first checks to see that 0 < r' < q and 0 < s' < q; if either condition is violated the signature shall be rejected. If these two conditions are satisfied, the verifier computes
w = (s')-1 mod q
u1 = ((SHA(M')w) mod q
u2 = ((r')w) mod q
v = (((g)ul (y)u2) mod p) mod q.
If v = r', then the signature is verified and the verifier can have high confidence that the received message was sent by the party holding the secret key x corresponding to y. For a proof that v = r' when M' = M, r' = r, and s' = s
If v does not equal r', then the message may have been modified, the message may have been incorrectly signed by the signatory, or the message may have been signed by an impostor. The message should be considered invalid.
A PROOF THAT v = r'
This appendix is for informational purposes only and is not required to meet the standard.
The purpose of this appendix is to show that if M' = M, r' = r and s' = s in the signature verification then v = r'. We need the following easy result.
LEMMA. Let p and q be primes so that q divides p - 1, h a positive integer less than p, and g = h(p-1)/q mod p. Then gq mod p = 1, and if m mod q = n mod q, then gm mod p = gn mod p.
Proof: We have
gq mod p = (h(p- 1)/q mod p)q mod p
= h(p-1) mod p
= 1
by Fermat's Little Theorem. Now let m mod q = n mod q, i.e., m = n + kq for some integer k. Then
gm mod p = gn+kq mod p
= (gn gkq) mod p
= ((gn mod p) (gq mod p)k) mod p
= gn mod p
since gq mod p = 1.
We are now ready to prove the main result.
THEOREM. If M' = M, r' = r, and s' = s in the signature verification, then v = r'.
Proof: We have
w = (s')-1 mod q = s-1 mod q
u1 = ((SHA(M'))w) mod q = ((SHA(M))w) mod q
u2 = ((r')w) mod q = (rw) mod q.
Now y = gx mod p, so that by the lemma,
v = ((gu1 yu2) mod p) mod q
= ((gSHA(M)w yrw) mod p) mod q
= ((gSHA(M)w gxrw) mod p) mod q
= ((g(SHA(M)+xr)w) mod p) mod q.
Also
s = (k-1(SHA(M) + xr)) mod q.
Hence
w = (k(SHA(M) + xr)-1) mod q
(SHA(M) + xr)w mod q = k mod q.
Thus by the lemma,
v = (gk mod p) mod q
= r
= r'.
The Risks Involved in Message Transmission
The term message transmission is used here to refer to the sending of a message from one person or organization to another, over a communications link.
The risks involved in message transmission are identified in a supporting document. This document describes the ways in which those risks can be addressed, through the application of cryptography.
Requirements for Message Transmission Security
The requirements of a security regime which addresses these risks are conventionally summarized under four broad headings. For the sender and receiver to be confident in the outcome of their communications, all of these requirements need to be satisfied.
(1) 'Confidentiality', or Message Content Security :
This comprises two separate requirements, that, during a message's transit from sender to receiver:
¢ No observer can access the contents of the message; and
¢ No observer can identify the sender and receiver.
The term 'confidentiality' is used by computer scientists who specialize in security matters. This is most unfortunate, because the term has an entirely different meaning within commerce generally, which derives from the law of confidence. For this reason, the alternative term 'message content security' is used in this Module.
(2) Integrity of Message Content :
This requires that the recipient can be sure that, whether accidentally, or because of an action by any party:
¢ The message has not been changed or lost during transmission;
¢ The message has not been prevented from reaching the recipient; and
¢ The message has not reached the recipient twice.
(3) Authentication of the Sender and Recipient :
This requires that:
¢ The sender can be sure that the message reaches the intended recipient, and only the intended recipient; and
¢ The recipient can be sure that the message came from the sender and not an imposter. The act by an imposter of sending such a message is referred to as 'spoofing'.
(4) Non-Repudiation by the Sender and Recipient :
This requires that:
¢ The sender cannot credibly deny that the message was sent by them; and
¢ The recipient cannot credibly deny that the message was received by them.
PURPOSE OF DIGITAL SIGNATURE
¢ Signer authentication :
If public and private keys are associated with an identified signer, the digital signature attributes the message to the signer. The digital signature cannot be forged, unless the signer loses control of the private key.
¢ Message authentication :
Digital signature identifies the signed message with far greater certainty and precision than paper signatures. Verification reveals any tempering since the comparison of hash result shows whether the message is the same as when signed.
¢ Non-repudiation :
Creating a digital signature requires the signer to use his private key. This alters the signer that he is consummating a transaction with legal consequences, decreasing the chances of litigation later on.
¢ Integrity :
Digital signature creation and verification processes provide a high level of assurance that the digital signature is that of the signer. Compared to tedious and labor intensive paper methods, such as checking signature cards, digital signatures yield a high degree of assurance without adding resources for processing.
AN EXAMPLE
________________________________________
What is a Digital Signature
An introduction to Digital Signatures, by David Youd
________________________________________

Bob

(Bob's public key)

(Bob's private key)
Bob has been given two keys. One of Bobâ„¢s keys is called a Public key,the other is called a Private key.
Bob's Co-workers:





Anyone can get Bob's Public Key, but Bob keeps his Private Key to himself
Pat Doug Susan
Bobâ„¢s Public key is available to anyone who needs it, but he keeps his Private key to himself.Keys are used to encrypt information. Encrypting information means "scrambling it up", so that only a person with the appropriate key can make it readable again.Either one of Bob's two keys can encrypt data, and the other key can decrypt that data.
Susan (shown below) can encrypt a message using Bobâ„¢s Public key. Bob uses his Private key to decrypt the message. Any of Bob's coworkers might have access to the message Susan encrypted, but without Bob's Private Key, the data is worthless.

Susan
"Hey Bob, how about lunch at Taco Bell. I hear they have free refills!"
HNFmsEm6Un BejhhyCGKOK JUxhiygSBCEiC 0QYIh/Hn3xgiK BcyLK1UcYiY lxx2lCFHDC/A

Bob
HNFmsEm6Un BejhhyCGKOK JUxhiygSBCEiC 0QYIh/Hn3xgiK BcyLK1UcYiY lxx2lCFHDC/A
"Hey Bob, how about lunch at Taco Bell. I hear they have free refills!"
With his private key and the right software,Bob can put digital signatures ondocuments and other data. A digital signature is a stamp Bob places on the data which is unique to Bob, and is very difficult to forge. In addition, the signature assures that any changes made to the data that has been signed can not go undetected.




To sign a document, Bob's software will crunch down the data into just a few lines by a process called "hashing". These few lines are called a message digest. (It is not possible to change a message digest back into the original data from which it was created.)



Bob's software then encrypts the message digest with his private key. The result is the digital signature.


Finally, Bob's software appends the digital signature to document. All of the data that was hashed has been signed.














Bob now passes the document on to Pat.


First, Patâ„¢s software decrypts the signature (using Bobâ„¢s public key) changing it back into a message digest. If this worked, then it proves that Bob signed the document, because only Bob has his private key. Patâ„¢s software then hashes the document data into a message digest. If the message digest is the same as the message digest created when the signature was decrypted, then Pat knows that the signed data has not been changed.
Plot complication...

Doug (our disgruntled employee) wishes to deceive Pat. Doug makes sure that Pat receives a signed message and a public key that appears to belong to Bob. Unbeknownst to Pat, Doug deceitfully sent a key pair he created using Bobâ„¢s name. Short of receiving Bobâ„¢s public key from him in person, how can Pat be sure that Bobâ„¢s public key is authentic
It just so happens that Susan works at the companyâ„¢s certificate authority center. Susan can create a digital certificate for Bob simply by signing Bobâ„¢s public key as well as some information about Bob.

Bob Info:
Name
Department
Cubical Number
Certificate Info:
Expiration Date
Serial Number
Bobâ„¢s Public Key:





Now Bobâ„¢s co-workers can check Bobâ„¢s trusted certificate to make sure that his public key truly belongs to him. In fact, no one at Bobâ„¢s company accepts a signature for which there does not exist a certificate generated by Susan. This gives Susan the power to revoke signatures if private keys are compromised, or no longer needed. There are even more widely accepted certificate authorities that certify Susan.
Letâ„¢s say that Bob sends a signed document to Pat. To verify the signature on the document, Patâ„¢s software first uses Susanâ„¢s (the certificate authorityâ„¢s) public key to check the signature on Bobâ„¢s certificate. Successful de-encryption of the certificate proves that Susan created it. After the certificate is de-encrypted, Patâ„¢s software can check if Bob is in good standing with the certificate authority and that all of the certificate information concerning Bobâ„¢s identity has not been altered.
Patâ„¢s software then takes Bobâ„¢s public key from the certificate and uses it to check Bobâ„¢s signature. If Bobâ„¢s public key de-encrypts the signature successfully, then Pat is assured that the signature was created using Bobâ„¢s private key, for Susan has certified the matching public key. And of course, if the signature is valid, then we know that Doug didnâ„¢t try to change the signed content.
Although these steps may sound complicated, they are all handled behind the scenes by Patâ„¢s user-friendly software. To verify a signature, Pat need only click on it.
CONCLUSION
Digital signatures are difficult to understand. Digital signatures will be championed by many players that the public distrusts, including national security agencies, law enforcement agencies, and consumer marketing companies. Digital signatures will inevitably be associated with cards. Digital signatures will inevitably be associated with biometric identifiers.
As a result, it appears that digital technology is rapidly becoming pervasive, the public not find this comforting. They will demand explicit privacy protections, far more substantial than the weak and patchy regime that is presently in place. The protections are also quite inadequate, though promising in some respects. Successful implementation of digital signatures will require far more attention to privacy issues by policy-makers and business interests.
REFERENCES
¢ Computer network by Andrew S. Tanenbaum
¢ Cryptography and Network security by William Stallings
¢ google.com
¢ yahoo.com
¢ amazon.com








CONTENTS
INTRODUCTION
¢ WHY DIGITAL SIGNATURE
¢ WHAT IS DIGITAL SIGNATURE
APPROACHES
¢ DIRECT DIGITAL SIGNATURE
¢ ARBITRATED DIGITAL SIGNATURE
THE DIGITAL SIGNATURE STANDARD
THE ALGORITHM
¢ DIGITAL SIGNATURE GENERATION
¢ DIGITAL SIGNATURE VERIFICATION
THE RISKS INVOLVED IN MESSAGE TRANSMISSION SECURITY
REQUIREMENT FOR MESSAGE TRANSMISSION SECURITY
PURPOSE OF DIGITAL SIGNATURE
CONCLUSION
REFERENCES