Wireless sensor networks using motes
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CHAPTER1
INTRODUCTION

Motes are tiny, self-contained, battery-powered computers with radio links, which enable them to communicate and exchange data with one another, and to self-organize into adhoc networks. The core of a mote is a small, low-cost; low-power computer. The computer monitors one or more sensors. Motes package together into a circuit board with networking and application software; interfaces to sensors that can detect changes in temperature, pressure, moisture, light, sound, or magnetism; and a wireless radio that can report on their findings--all powered by a pair of AA batteries. Enabled by the fusion of small, low-cost chips, low-powered radios, and the spread of wireless networking, motes are a giant leap ahead of traditional sensors that for decades have measured everything from temperature in buildings to factory machines' vibrations. Wireless sensor networks enable the monitoring of a variety of possibly inhospitable environments that include home security, machine-failure diagnostic, chemical/biological detection, medical and wide habitat monitoring..
A Smart Dust mote is an electronic package composed of: an integrated-circuit radio transmitter and receiver. A microcontroller that controls the operation of the mote; a random-access memory (RAM) like the one(s) in your computer; a flash memory like the one that stores pictures in a digital camera; some standard sensors–a resistive temperature sensor and a semiconductor illumination (light) sensor that produces a current when it is illuminated; an analog-to-digital converter (ADC) that converts the analog temperature and illumination sensor outputs to digital form for transmission elsewhere; a power source for the mote. The chemical contents of the pipes can gradually weaken them so, to prevent accidental chemical releases, plant operators must periodically inspect piping and other “components that may be susceptible to wall thinning caused by erosion/corrosion” (Jona1996).Today, this inspection process is labor intensive for pipes covered with insulation and for pipes located in confined areas. In the future, smart dust could be employed to facilitate.
CHAPTER2
HISTORY OF A SENSOR NODE

History of development of sensor nodes dates back to 1998 in the Smart dust project. One of the objectives of this project is to create autonomous sensing and communication in a cubic millimeter. Though this project ended early on, it has given birth to many more research projects. They include major research centers in Berkeley NEST and CENS. The researchers involved in these projects coined the term 'mote' to refer to a sensor node. Sensor nodes have not increased in power as one would expect from Moore's Law. They typically have very small computer and storage capabilities compared to desktop computers. This can be attributed to the low volume of the current market for them and their use of very low power microcontrollers.
Smart dust was conceived in 1998 by Dr. Kris Pister of the UC Berkeley (Hsu, Kahn, and Pister 1998; Eisenberg 1999). He set out to build a device with a sensor, communication device, and small computer integrated into a single package. The Defense Advanced Research Projects Agency (DARPA) 1 funded the project, setting as a goal the demonstration “that a complete sensor/communication system can be integrated into a cubic millimeter package” (Pister 2001). (By comparison, a grain of rice has a volume of about 5 cubic millimeters.) In the early stages of the project, the team gained experience by building relatively large motes using components available “off the shelf” One such mote, named “RF Mote,” has sensors for “temperature, humidity, barometric pressure, light intensity, tilt and vibration, and magnetic field” and it is capable of communicating distances of about 60 feet using radio frequency (RF) communication2 .If the mote operated continuously, its battery would last up to one week (ibid).
During the course of the Smart Dust project, Professor David Culler and a team of researchers at UC Berkeley created the Tiny OS operating system (Yang 2003). Once installed on a mote, this software is responsible for operating the device, managing its power consumption, and facilitating communication with other motes.
CHAPTER3
ARCHITECTURE

Sensor node, also known as a 'mote' (chiefly in North America), is a node in a wireless sensor network that is capable of performing some processing, gathering sensory information and communicating with other connected nodes in the network. The typical architecture of the sensor node is shown in the figure.
CHAPTER4
COMPONENTS OF A SENSOR NODE

The main components of a sensor node as seen from the figure are microcontroller, transceiver, external memory, power source and one or more sensors.
Microcontroller
Microcontroller performs tasks, processes data and controls the functionality of other components in the sensor node. Other alternatives that can be used as a controller are: General purpose desktop microprocessor, Digital signal processors, Field Programmable Gate Array and Application-specific integrated circuit. Microcontrollers are the most suitable choice for a sensor node. Each of the four choices has their own advantages and disadvantages. Microcontrollers are the best choices for embedded systems. Because of their flexibility to connect to other devices, programmable, power consumption is less, as these devices can go into a sleep state and part of controller can be active. In a general purpose microprocessor the power consumption is more than the microcontroller, therefore it is not a suitable choice for sensor node. Digital Signal Processors are appropriate for broadband wireless communication. But in Wireless Sensor Networks, the wireless communication should be modest i.e., simpler, easier to process modulation and signal processing tasks of actual sensing of data is less complicated. Therefore the advantages of DSP’s are not that much of importance to wireless sensor node. Field Programmable Gate Arrays can be reprogrammed and reconfigured according to requirements, but it takes time and energy. Therefore FPGA's is not advisable. Application Specific Integrated Circuits are specialized processors designed for a given application. ASIC's provided the functionality in the form of hardware, but microcontrollers provide it through software.
TRANSCEIVER
Sensor nodes make use of ISM band which gives free radio, huge spectrum allocation and global availability. The various choices of wireless transmission media are Radio frequency, Optical communication (Laser) and Infrared. Laser requires less energy, but needs line-of-sight for communication and also sensitive to atmospheric conditions. Infrared like laser, needs no antenna but is limited in its broadcasting capacity. Radio Frequency (RF) based communication is the most relevant that fits to most of the WSN applications. WSN’s use the communication frequencies between about 433 MHz and 2.4 GHz. The functionality of both transmitter and receiver are combined into a single device know as transceivers are used in sensor nodes. Transceivers lack unique identifier. The operational states are Transmit, Receive, Idle and Sleep.
EXTERNAL MEMORY
From an energy perspective, the most relevant kinds of memory are on-chip memory of a microcontroller and Flash memory - off-chip RAM is rarely if ever used. Flash memories are used due to its cost and storage capacity. Memory requirements are very much application dependent. Two categories of memory based on the purpose of storage a) User memory used for storing application related or personal data. b) Program memory used for programming the device. This memory also contains identification data of the device if any.
POWER SOURCE
Power consumption in the sensor node is for the Sensing, Communication and Data Processing. More energy is required for data communication in sensor node. Energy expenditure is less for sensing and data processing. The energy cost of transmitting 1 Kb a distance of 100 m is approximately the same as that for the executing 3 million instructions by 100 million instructions per second/W processor. Power is stored either in Batteries or Capacitors. Batteries are the main source of power supply for sensor nodes. Namely two types of batteries used are chargeable and non-rechargeable.
SENSORS
Sensors are hardware devices that produce measurable response to a change in a physical condition like temperature and pressure. Sensors sense or measure physical data of the area to be monitored. The continual analog signal sensed by the sensors is digitized by an Analog-to-digital converter and sent to controllers for further processing. Characteristics and requirements of Sensor node should be small size, consume extremely low energy, operate in high volumetric densities, are autonomous and operate unattended, and be adaptive to the environment. As wireless sensor nodes are micro-electronic sensor device, can only be equipped with a limited power source of less than 0.5 Ah and 1.2 V. Sensors are classified into three categories.
• Passive, Omni Directional Sensors: Passive sensors sense the data without actually manipulating the environment by active probing. They are self powered i.e. energy is needed only to amplify their analog signal. There is no notion of “direction” involved in these measurements.
• Passive, narrow-beam sensors: These sensors are passive but they have well-defined notion of direction of measurement. Typical example is ‘camera’.
• Active Sensors: This group of sensors actively probes the environment, for example, a sonar or radar sensor or some type of seismic sensor, which generate shock waves by small explosions.
The overall theoretical work on WSN’s considers Passive, Omni directional sensors. Each sensor node has a certain area of coverage for which it can reliably and accurately report the particular quantity that it is observing. Several sources of power consumption in sensors are a) Signal sampling and conversion of physical signals to electrical ones, b) signal conditioning, and c) analog-to-digital conversion. Spatial density of sensor nodes in the field may be as high as 20 nodes/ m3.
CHAPTER5
WORKING

The mote relays the collected data to its neighboring motes and then to a specified destination where it is processed. This sensory input, when gathered from all the motes and analyzed by more traditional computers, paints a comprehensive, high-resolution. The motes we’ll use – called “Mica2dot” motes (don’t ask) – also have three light-emitting diodes (LEDs) on them. The red LED indicates when the mote is turned on the yellow and green LEDs flash when mote-to-mote communication is occurring.
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