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Executive Summary
Teacher professionalization—the movement to upgrade the status, training, and working
conditions of teachers—has received a great deal of interest in recent years. This report is
concerned with the effects of teacher professionalization on elementary and secondary
teachers in the United States. The analysis assesses the effects of teacher professionalization
by examining the relationships between a selected set of characteristics, traditionally
associated with professions and professionals, and one of the most important aspects of the
quality and performance of teachers: their commitment to their teaching careers.
The following characteristics of professions and professionals are focused on in this report:
Credentials:
C the use of professional criteria for hiring teaching job candidates
Induction:
C the provision of mentoring programs for beginning teachers
C the effectiveness of assistance provided to new teachers
Professional Development:
C the extent of participation of teaching staffs in activities sponsored by professional
teaching organizations
C the provision of financial support for teachers’ continuing education
Authority:
C the extent of influence collectively wielded by faculties over school policymaking
C the degree of individual autonomy exercised by teachers over planning and teaching
within their classrooms
Compensation:
C the highest salary levels offered by schools
The data source for this analysis is the nationally representative 1990–91 Schools and Staffing
Survey (SASS), conducted by the National Center for Education Statistics (NCES). The
analysis uses hierarchical linear modeling, a multiple regression statistical method designed for
use with multilevel data, to assess the relationships between the above measures of
professionalization and teacher commitment, while holding equal, or controlling for, a number
of background characteristics of both schools and teachers.
The results show that some characteristics of professionalization are related to teacher
commitment, and some are not. Four aspects of professionalization, in particular, stood out for
Executive Summary
viii Teacher Professionalization and Teacher Commitment
their association with commitment: the reported amounts of teacher classroom autonomy; the
reported amounts of faculty policymaking influence; the reported effectiveness of assistance for
new teachers; and teachers’ maximum end-of-career salaries. When comparing across the
population of elementary and secondary schools, those with higher levels of each of these
characteristics had higher levels of teacher commitment, after controlling for the other factors.
For example, 60 percent of schools with high levels of faculty policymaking influence had
high teacher commitment; in contrast, only 18 percent of schools with low faculty
policymaking influence had high teacher commitment. Likewise, 39 percent of schools with
highly effective assistance for new teachers had high commitment; in contrast, only
23 percent of schools without effective assistance for new teachers had high teacher
commitment.
On the other hand, several traditional indicators of teacher professionalization were not
associated with higher teacher commitment to a statistically significant degree. These
included the use of professional criteria for hiring teaching job candidates (certification,
completion of teacher education program, passage of a teacher examination, college
major/minor in the field to be taught); the provision of financial support for teachers’
continuing education; and the degree of participation of teaching staffs in activities sponsored
by professional teaching organizations. The results of this analysis also suggest that a school
having a mentor program to assist beginning teachers is less important for teacher
commitment than is the quality of assistance provided to new teachers. That is, simply
offering formal mentoring programs did not appear to improve the commitment of teachers.
But, the average commitment of teachers increased if, according to the teaching staff as a
whole, new teachers were effectively assisted in matters of discipline, instruction, and
adjustment to the school environment, whether from a mentor program or some other
mechanism.
Teacher Professionalization and Teacher Commitment 1
Introduction
Since the mid-1980s, a growing number of education reformers, policymakers, and researchers
have argued that many of the well-publicized shortcomings of the elementary and secondary
education system in the United States are, to an important extent, due to inadequacies in the
working conditions, resources, and support afforded to school teachers. Proponents of this
view hold, for example, that teachers are underpaid, have too little say in the operation of
schools, are afforded too few opportunities to improve their teaching skills, suffer from a lack
of support or assistance, and are not adequately rewarded or recognized for their efforts. The
key to improving the quality of schools, these critics claim, lies in upgrading the status,
training, and working conditions of teaching, that is, in furthering the professionalization of
teachers and teaching. The rationale underlying this view is that upgrading the teaching
occupation will lead to improvements in the motivation and commitment of teachers, which,
in turn, will lead to improvements in teachers’ performance, which will ultimately lead to
improvements in student learning (e.g., Carnegie Forum 1986; Darling-Hammond 1984;
Rosenholtz 1989; Sergiovanni and Moore 1989; Weis et al. 1989; Conley and Cooper 1991;
Holmes Group 1986; Darling-Hammond 1995; Talbert and McLaughlin 1993).
This interest in the professionalization of teaching has gained recognition and impetus from a
number of quarters. At the federal level, increased support for the professional development
of elementary and secondary teachers was added to the national education goals through the
Goals 2000 legislation (National Education Goals Panel 1995). At the state and local levels,
numerous initiatives have been directed to upgrading the status, training, working conditions,
resources, and support afforded to school teachers (Bacharach 1990; Darling-Hammond
1995).
But, although there has been a great deal of interest in the subject of teacher
professionalization, confusion surrounds this topic. In the first place, among those concerned
with the status of teaching as a profession, there has been little consensus as to what
constitutes the proper target of research and reform. The rhetoric, research, and reform
surrounding teaching as a profession has focused on a wide range of different aspects of
teachers, teaching, and schools. There are, moreover, wide differences in what is meant by
profession, professionals, professionalism, and professionalization. For example, staff
development—training and educational programs designed to upgrade the skills and
knowledge of teachers—is the primary focus of many researchers and reformers. To others,
however, the degree of staff collegiality and collaboration is the key focus. Some seek to alter
the individual attitudes teachers hold towards their work, such as the degree to which teachers
support high academic standards, while others are concerned with changing the organizational
conditions in which teachers work, such as the degree to which school decisionmaking is
centralized. Finally, to others, occupational characteristics, such as increasing the licensing
and certification requirements for entry into teaching, are the primary concern. As a result of
Introduction
2 Teacher Professionalization and Teacher Commitment
this wide range of emphases, it is often unclear whether researchers and reformers are referring
to the same aspects and phenomena when they discuss or criticize the current status of
teaching as a profession. (For examples of recent discussions of teaching as a profession, see
Little 1990; Lieberman 1988; Rowan 1994; Talbert and McLaughlin 1993.)
Second, researchers and reformers alike have tended to assume that changing the teaching
occupation will be highly beneficial and have primarily directed their focus to the ways and
means of altering the current state of affairs. There has been much less attention, and
empirical research, directed to empirically testing these many claims.
As a result of this wide variation in the definition of what constitutes a profession and
professionalization, together with a shortage of empirical research, there is little consensus as
to what degree schools currently exhibit the characteristics of professionalized workplaces and
to what extent these characteristics vary across different kinds of schools. Moreover, it is
unclear to what extent the teaching occupation has undergone changes over this period of
school reform. Finally, little is known of what ways the many different aspects of
professionalization affect teachers and teaching.
In order to address these issues, the National Center for Education Statistics (NCES) has
sponsored several recent research projects on the teaching occupation. America’s Teachers:
Profile of a Profession provides a comprehensive compendium of a wide range of information on
elementary and secondary teachers and teaching in the United States (Choy et al. 1993a). A
second, briefer report, America’s Teachers Ten Years After “A Nation at Risk,” examines changes
in the state of the teaching occupation from the mid-1980s to the mid-1990s (Smith 1995).
Finally, a third report, The Status of Teaching as a Profession, provides an empirical
examination of the state of elementary and secondary teaching as a profession in the United
States (Ingersoll 1996a). Focusing on a series of characteristics traditionally used to
distinguish professions and professionals from other kinds of work and workers, this latter
report describes the levels and variations in the extent to which elementary and secondary
teaching can and cannot be considered a profession. The results show that, in fact, there is
wide variation in the degree to which different kinds of schools exhibit the characteristics of
professionalized workplaces.
The present report builds on these other projects by turning to the topic of what difference the
degree of professionalization makes for those in schools. It assesses the impact of
professionalization by examining the relationship between a number of different kinds and
examples of teacher professionalization and the commitment of teachers to their teaching
careers.
To education researchers, the degree of teacher commitment is one of the most important
aspects of the performance and quality of school staff. Commitment is defined here as the
degree of positive, affective bond between the teacher and the school. It does not refer to a
passive type of loyalty where teachers stay with their jobs, but are not really involved in the
school or their work. Rather, it reflects the degree of internal motivation, enthusiasm, and job
satisfaction teachers derive from teaching and the degree of efficacy and effectiveness they
achieve in their jobs. Proponents of teacher professionalization have argued that
improvements in the commitment of teachers is one of the outcomes most likely to be
positively affected by the new teacher reform efforts. They argue that increasing the
Introduction
Teacher Professionalization and Teacher Commitment 3
commitment of teachers is an important first step in the process of school reform:
professionalization of teachers will result in higher commitment, which will positively affect
teachers’ performance, which will ultimately lead to improvements in student learning. Not
surprisingly, teacher commitment has been the subject of a great deal of educational research.
(For reviews, see Miskel and Ogawa 1988; Reyes 1990; Rowan 1990; Rosenholtz 1989.)
This analysis focuses on the first step in this theory of school improvement—understanding
the impact of teacher professionalization on teacher commitment. It assesses this impact by
using hierarchical linear modeling, otherwise known as HLM, which is a multiple regression
statistical method designed for use with multilevel data. The objective of the analysis is to
estimate the relationship between teacher professionalization and teacher commitment, while
holding equal, or controlling for, a number of demographic characteristics of both teachers
and the schools in which they teach.
This analysis is based on a series of traditional characteristics used to distinguish professions,
professionals, and professionalized worksites from other kinds of work, workers, and
workplaces. These characteristics are drawn from the sociology of work, occupations, and
professions. Sociology has been among the most prominent disciplines to study the
characteristics of professions. Sociologists have developed what is known as the professional
model—a series of organizational and occupational characteristics associated with professions
and professionals and, hence, useful to distinguish professions and professionals from other
kinds of work and workers (Hughes 1965; Vollmer and Mills 1966; Hall 1968; Wallace 1994).
These characteristics include rigorous training requirements, positive working conditions, high
prestige, substantial authority, relatively high compensation, and an active professional
organization or association. From this viewpoint, occupations can be assessed according to the
degree to which they do or do not exhibit the characteristics of the professional model. The
“established professions”—law and medicine, in particular—are usually regarded as the
strongest examples of the professional model. The process whereby occupations seek to
upgrade their professional status by adopting the attributes of the professional model is known
as professionalization.
Sociologists have been careful to distinguish professionalization from professionalism. The
former refers to the degree to which occupations exhibit the structural attributes,
characteristics, and criteria identified with the professional model. The latter refers to the
attitudinal attributes and ideology of those who are considered to be, or aspire to be considered
as, professionals. These include a belief in the value of expertise, rigorous standards, and a
public-service orientation. Although professionalism is often considered part of the
professionalization process, it is not considered a reliable indicator of the professional model.
On the one hand, some occupational groups that express the ideas and ideology of
professionalism, in reality, may not be very advanced in regard to professionalization. On the
other hand, some established professions that are advanced in regard to professionalization, in
reality, do not widely exhibit the ideology and attitudes of professionalism (e.g., Hughes 1965;
Vollmer and Mills 1966; Hall 1968).
The objective of this report is to examine the relationships between a number of different
kinds and examples of teacher professionalization and the commitment of teachers to their
teaching careers. The following section summarizes these traditional characteristics and
Introduction
4 Teacher Professionalization and Teacher Commitment
describes what effect education reformers have expected them to have on teachers’ attitudes,
performance, quality, and, specifically, their commitment to their careers.
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