Energy Storage
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PRESENTED BY:
Frank R. Leslie,

[attachment=10074]
In Other News . . .
Texas-Size Battery

The hoped-for remedy is a battery, a Texas-size battery, which could eventually end up playing an important role in wider use of green power generation such as solar and wind. The U.S. $25 million system, which is now charging and is set to be dedicated April 8, will be the largest use of this energy storage technology in the United States.
The four-megawatt sodium-sulfur (NaS) battery system consists of 80 modules, 8,000 pounds (3,600 kilograms) each, constructed by the Japanese firm NGK-Locke. They were shipped to Long Beach, California, in December and transported to Texas aboard 24 trucks.
The cost of the battery system includes $10 million just to construct the building in which it will be housed and the new substation it requires.
Batteries (groups; from artillery guns) of cells are used separately or in a case containing several cells; a 12V car battery has six 2V cells inside the case
Large batteries are often use separate 2V cells placed next to each other in a rectangle
Various cell chemistries are used
Lead-acid; Nickel-cadmium; Lithium
Nickel-metal hydride
Zinc-air
Best suited to storage periods of 1 second to 60 days
Self-discharge and sulphation occur with time
Desulphator circuits can reduce sulfates for longer life
18.2 Flow Batteries
Flow batteries use pumped electrolytes that move outside of the battery case
Polysulfide Bromide (PSB), Vanadium Redox (VRB), Zinc Bromine (ZnBr), and Hydrogen Bromine (H-Br) batteries are examples
A “filling station” could exchange spent electrolyte for new “charged” electrolyte
The power and energy ratings are thus independent since the power is from the battery electrodes while the electrolyte may be replaced periodically
18.3 Flywheels
Flywheels store energy as angular momentum
Best suited to storage periods of 1 second to 10 minutes
High temperature superconducting bearings reduce bearing friction to 2% of speed drop per day
Ball bearings are so inexpensive that the performance gains of magnetic bearings are irrelevant
The flywheel case is designed with a shield to contain a failed rotor and its pieces if it shatters and blows up
Batteries are much cheaper than flywheel systems
Test buses used flywheels that were spun up by electricity at bus stops; no wires along streets
18.3 Flywheels & Trains
This trackside flywheel system provides stabilization of voltages on the track system by being both motor and generator
Similar types are used to stabilize renewable energy outputs
Buses have been operated that use flywheels charged by electricity at the bus stops, thus avoiding the cost of overhead trolley wires
18.4 Ultracapacitors
Ultracapacitors are very high capacitance units
Best suited to storage periods of 0.1 second to 10 seconds
Stored energy is 0.5 C V2
Capacitances now reach 2.7 kF (kilofarad)
Carbon electrode surface areas 1000m2 to 2000m2 per gram provide high capacitance
Electrolytes are sulfuric acid or potassium hydroxide
18.5 Hydro Pumped Storage
18.5 San Luis, California
18.5.1 Hydro Examples
18.6 Compressed Air Pumped Storage
18.6.1 Compressed Air Energy Storage
18.6.2 Compressed H2 and NG Storage

Hydrogen is normally stored in 8-inch tubes and tanks
H2 pressures range from 2000 to 10,000 psi
Nickel-metal hydride is a solid pellet or powder storage
CNG or compressed natural gas is stored at 3000 psi
18.6.3 Liquid Air Energy Storage
Mitsubishi Heavy Industries is developing LASE (Liquid Air Storage Energy)
The system makes liquid air at nights and weekends for vaporization and electricity generation
The turbine is based upon a rocket motor pump
This load-shifting provides the economic incentive to use the system
Could also be done with liquid nitrogen storage
18.7 Superconductors
Since a superconductor has essentially zero resistance, a current once started will flow “forever”
At a later time, energy could be extracted from the superconductor
Since the superconductors must be kept far below usual air temperature (~20K to 80K), energy must be used to compress the gas and make it liquefy
Newer superconductors are being investigated to find ones with a higher critical temperature near room temperature
18.7.1 Superconductor Example
18.8 Ice Thermal Energy Storage
18.9 Financial Storage
18.10 Renewable Energy Funding

President Clinton served from 1992 through 2000
During 1992-1999, the Dept. of Energy Renewable Energy budget varied from $388M to $488M, reaching its low of $363M in 1997
The 1999 DOE RE budget shows these top areas:
Electric Energy Systems $38M
Geothermal $33M
Hydrogen Research $24M
Hydropower $4M
Solar Energy was separated out at $112M to $87M in 1997 to $ 116M in 1999
The major budget item in 1999 was biofuels $89M, followed by PV at $79M
Budget at 4/2007 at ~$307M vs. ~$200M
18.11 Issues and Trends
Energy storage provides energy at a different time than when it was generated (time-shifting)
Conventional storage systems such as batteries and pumped hydro continue to dominate due to cost
Short-term storage or energy-smoothing devices like flywheels and ultracapacitors work well in the 10-second time range
Unneeded generators are often kept in “spinning reserve”, motoring without load to act as generators if additional power is required (air and bearing losses)
This also stores reactive power (v.a.r.s or vars)
Energy storage will smooth peaks and valleys of availability, but load shifting by the users is more useful
18 Conclusion: Energy Storage
Olin Engineering Complex 4.7 kW Solar PV Roof Array
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