biochips
#1

[attachment=899]
Biochips-The most exciting future technology is an outcome of the fields of Computer science, Electronics & Biology. Its a new type of bio - security device to accurately track information regarding what a person is doing, and who is to accurately track information regarding what he is doing, and who is actually doing it. It™s no more required with biochips the good old idea of remembering pesky PINs, Passwords, & Social security numbers .No more matters of carrying medical records to a hospital, No more cash/credit card carrying to the market place; everything goes embedded in the chip¦. Every thing goes digitalized. No more hawker tricks on the internet¦.! Biochip has a variety technique for secured E-money transactions on the net. The power of biochips exists in capability of locating lost children, downed soldiers, and wandering Alzheimer patients. A simple ID chip is already walking around in tens of thousands of individuals, but all of them are pets. Companies such as AVID (Norco, Calif.), Electronic ID, Inc. (Cleburne, TX.), and Electronic Identification Devices, Ltd. (Santa Barbara, Calif.) sell both the chips and the detectors. The chips are of the size of an uncooked grain of rice, small enough to be injected under the skin using a hypodermic syringe needle. They respond to a signal from the detector, held just a few feet away, by transmitting out an identification number. This number is then compared to database listings of registered pets. Biochips-The most exciting future technology is an outcome of the fields of Computer science, Electronics & Biology. Its a new type of bio - security device to accurately track information regarding what a person is doing, and who is to accurately track information regarding what he is doing, and who is actually doing it. It™s no more required with biochips the good old idea of remembering pesky PINs, Passwords, & Social security numbers .No more matters of carrying medical records to a hospital, No more cash/credit card carrying to the market place; everything goes embedded in the chip¦. Every thing goes digitalized. No more hawker tricks on the internet¦.! Biochip has a variety technique for secured E-money transactions on the net. The power of biochips exists in capability of locating lost children, downed soldiers, and wandering Alzheimer patients. Our contributions to this paper lie in the aspects of Implementation of Glucose detector in Biochips Implementation of Oxygen sensor in Biochips Implementation of Blood pressure sensor in Biochips Proposal of Solution for the typical theft problem faced by the Biochips The four contributions have been discussed in detail with the proposed principles for implementation of the concepts. A simple ID chip is already walking around in tens of thousands of individuals, but all of them are pets. Companies such as AVID (Norco, Calif.), Electronic ID, Inc. (Cleburne, TX.), and Electronic Identification Devices, Ltd. (Santa Barbara, Calif.) sell both the chips and the detectors. The chips are of the size of an uncooked grain of rice, small enough to be injected under the skin using a hypodermic syringe needle. They respond to a signal from the detector, held just a few feet away, by transmitting out an identification number. This number is then compared to database listings of registered pets. The Biochip tagging for humans has already started¦Rush out for your tag!!! 3 INTRODUCTION Biochips are any microprocessor chips that can be used in Biology. The biochip technology was originally developed in 1983 for monitoring fisheries, it™s use now includes, over 300 zoos, over 80 government agencies in at least 20 countries, pets (everything from lizards to dogs), electronic "branding" of horses, monitoring lab animals, fisheries, endangered wildlife, automobiles, garment tracking, hazardous waste, and humans. Biochips are "silently" inching into humans. For instance, at least 6 million medical devices, such as artificial body parts (prosthetic devices), breast implants, chin implants, etc., are implanted in people each year. And most of these medical devices are carrying a "surprise" guest ” a biochip. In 1993, the Food and Drug Administration passed the Safe Medical Devices Registration Act of 1993, requiring all artificial body implants to have "implanted" identification ” the biochip. So, the yearly, 6 million recipients of prosthetic devices and breast implants are "biochipped". To date, over 7 million animals have been "chipped". The major biochip companies are A.V.I.D. (American Veterinary Identification Devices), Trovan Identification Systems, and Destron-Fearing Corporation. THE BIOCHIP TECHNOLOGY The current, in use, biochip implant system is actually a fairly simple device. Today™s, biochip implant is basically a small (micro) computer chip, inserted under the skin, for identification purposes. The biochip system is radio frequency identification (RFID) system, using lowfrequency radio signals to communicate between the biochip and reader. THE BIOCHIP IMPLANT SYSTEM CONSISTS OF TWO COMPONENTS: PERSPECTIVE OF THE ACTUAL SIZE THE TRANSPONDER: The transponder is the actual biochip implan t. It is a passive transponder, meaning it contains no battery or energy of its own. In comparison, an active transponder would provide its own energy source, normally a small battery. Because the passive biochip contains no battery, or nothing to wear out, it has a very long life, up to 99 years, and no maintenance. Being passive, it's inactive until the reader activates it by sending it a lowpower electrical charge. The reader "reads" or 4 "scans" the implanted biochip and receives back data (in this case an identification number) from the biochip. The communication between biochip and reader is via low-frequency radio waves. The biochip transponder consists of four parts: 1. computer Microchip: The microchip stores a unique identification number from 10 to 15 digits long. The storage capacity of the current microchips is limited, capable of storing only a single ID number. AVID (American Veterinary Identification Devices), claims their chips, using an nnn-nnn-nnn format, has the capability of over 70 trillio n unique numbers. The unique ID number is "etched" or encoded via a laser onto the surface of the microchip before assembly. Once the number is encoded it is impossible to alter. The microchip also contains the electronic circuitry necessary to transmit the ID number to the "reader". 2. Antenna Coil: This is normally a simple, coil of copper wire around a ferrite or iron core. This tiny, primitive, radio antenna "receives and sends" signals from the reader or scanner. 3. Tuning Capacitor: The capacitor stores the small electrical charge (less than 1/1000 of a watt) sent by the reader or scanner, which activates the transponder. This "activation" allows the transponder to send back the ID number encoded in the computer chip. Because "radio waves" are utili zed to communicate between the transponder and reader, the capacitor is "tuned" to the same frequency as the reader. 4. Glass Capsule: The glass capsule "houses" the microchip, antenna coil and capacitor. It is a small capsule, the smallest measuring 11 mm in length and 2 mm in diameter, about the size of an uncooked grain of rice. The capsule is made of biocompatible material such as soda lime glass. After assembly, the capsule is hermetically (air -tight) sealed, so no bodily fluids can touch the electr onics inside. Because the glass is very smooth and susceptible to movement, a material such as a polypropylene polymer sheath is attached to one end of the capsule. This sheath provides a compatible surface which the bodily tissue fibers bond or interconnect, resulting in a permanent placement of the biochip. BIOCHIP AND SYRINGE The biochip is inserted into the subject with a hypodermic syringe. Injection is safe and simple, comparable to common vaccines. Anesthesia is not required nor recommended. In dogs and cats, the biochip is usually injected behind the neck between the shoulder blades. Trovan, L td., markets an implant, featuring a patented "zip quill", which you simply press in, no syringe is needed. According to AVID "Once implanted, the identity tag is virtually impossible to retrieve. . . The number can never be altered." THE READER: The reader consists of an "exciter" coil which creates an electromagnetic field that, via radio signals, provides the necessary energy (less than 1/1000 of a watt) to "excite" or "activate" the 5 implanted biochip. The reader also carries a receiving coil that receives the transmitted code or ID number sent back from the "activated" implanted biochip. This all takes place very fast, in milliseconds. The reader also contains the software and components to decode the received code and display the result in an LCD disp lay. The reader can include a RS-232 port to attach a computer. WORKING OF A BIOCHIP: The reader generates a low-power, electromagnetic field, in this case via radio signals, which "activates" the implanted biochip. This "activation" enables the biochip t o send the ID code back to the reader via radio signals. The reader amplifies the received code, converts it to digital format, decodes and displays the ID number on the reader's LCD display. The reader must normally be between 2 and 12 inches near the biochip to communicate. The reader and biochip can communicate through most materials, except metal. THE APPLICATIONS: With a biochip tracing of a person/animal , anywhere in the world is possible: Once the reader is connected to the internet, satellite and a centralized database is maintained about the biochipped creatures, It is always possible to trace out the personality intended. A biochip can store and update financial, medical, demographic data, basically everything about a person: An implanted biochip can be scanned to pay for groceries, obtain medical procedures, and conduct financial transactions. Currently, the in use, implanted biochips only store one 10 to 15 digits. If biochips are designed to accommodate with more ROM & RAM there is definitely a n opportunity. A biochip leads to a secured ECommerce systems : It™s a fact; the world is very quickly going to a digital or E-economy, through the Internet. It is expected that by 2008, 60% of the Business transactions will be performed through the Internet. The E-money future, however, isn't necessarily secure. The Internet wasn't built to be Fort Knox. In the wrong hands, this powerful tool can turn dangerous. Hackers have already broken into bank files that were 100% secure. A biochip is the possible solution to the "identification and security" dilemma faced by the digital economy. This type of new bio-security device is capable of accurately tracking information regarding what users are doing, and who are to accurately track information regarding what users are doing, and who is actually doing it. Biochips really are potent in replacing passports, cash, medical records: The really powered biochip systems can replace cash, passports, medical & other records! It™s no more required to carry wallet full cash, credit/ATM cards, passports & medical records to the market place. Payment system, authentication procedures may all be done by the means Biochips. Medicinal implementations of Biochips : A New Era Proposed by us Biochip as Glucose Detector : The Biochip can be integrated with a glucose detector. The chip will allow diabetics to easily monitor the level of the sugar glucose in their 6 blood. Diabetics currently use a skin prick and a hand-held blood test, and then medicate themselves with insulin depending on the result. The system is simple and works well, but the need to draw blood means that most diabetics don't test themselves as often as they should. Although they may get away with this in the short term, in later life those who monitored infreque ntly suffer from blindness, loss of circulation, and other complications. The solution is more frequent testing, using a less invasive method. The biochip will sit underneath the skin, sense the glucose level, and send the result back out by radio - frequency communication. Proposed principle of Glucose detection: A light-emitting diode (LED) in the biochip starts off the detection process. The light that it produces hits a fluorescent chemical: one that absorbs incoming light and re -emits it at a longer wavelength. The longer wavelength of light is then detected, and the result is sent to a control panel outside the body. Glucose is detected because the sugar reduces the amount of light that the fluorescent chemical re-emits. The more glucose there is the less light that is detected. Biochip as Oxygen sensor : The biochip can also be integrated with an oxygen sensor .The oxygen sensor will be useful not only to monitor breathing in intensive care units, but also to check that packages of food, or containers of semiconductors stored under nitrogen gas, remain airtight. Proposed principal of Oxygen sensor in Biochip: The oxygen-sensing chip sends light pulses out into the body. The light is absorbed to varying extents, depending on how much oxygen is being carried in the blood, and the chip detects the light that is left. The rushes of blood pumped by the heart are also detected, so the same chip is a pulse monitor. Biochip as an Blood Pressure sensor: In normal situations, The Blood Pressure of a healthy Human being is 120/80 mm of Hg. A Pressure ratio lower than this is said to be Low BP condition & A Pressure ratio more than this is High BP condition. Serious Effects will be reflected in humans during Low & High BP conditions; it may sometimes cause the death of a Person. Blood Pressure is checked with BP Apparatus in Hospitals and this is done only when the patient is abnormal. However, a continuous monitoring of BP is required in the aged people & Patients. A huge variety of hardware circuitry (sen sors) is available in electronics to detect the flow of fluid. It™s always possible to embed this type of sensors into a biochip. An integration of Pressure (Blood Flow) detecting circuits with the Biochip can make the chip to continuously monitor the bloo d flow rate & when the pressure is in its low or high extremes it can be immediately informed through the reader hence to take up remedial measures. 7 Typical Problem of Biochips: A Solution Proposed “ The Lock: Problem before the world A chip implant would contain a person™s financial world, medical history, health care ” it would contain his electronic life". If cash no longer existed and if the world™s economy was totally chip oriented; ” there would be a huge "blackmarket" for chips! Since there is no cash and no other bartering system, criminals would cut off hands and heads, stealing "rich-folks" chips." It is very dangerous because once kidnappers get to know about these chips, they will skin people to find them," (New York Times, June 20, 1999) . The Biochip must retain data only if it is placed in a fluid medium like blood & not in any other medium. This technique is unsuitable for identification of dead bodies (murdered by the kidnappers) as it loses the data about the social security number. The data in the Biochip must be erased if it is exposed to sunlight/air.This technique is unsuitable as transplantation of biochip from genuine to the fraud in darkness (by means of infrared light) or in the vacuum (by means of oxygen cylinders). And many suc h¦¦.!!!!!!!! Our key: The solution Proposed by us A generic & existing model of Biochips consists of only ROM component in it and is capable of accommodating the data such as social security number, Passport number, bankcard number etc., which are normall y permanent in nature. The induction of RAM component in addition to ROM & storing the Bankcard, Financial details which causes the problem is a mere solution. As RAM needs to be continuously charged inorder to retain the data, Current can be supplied to the chip either from the electrical energy produced in the cells or by converting the heat energy in our body to electrical energy. Once if the chip is taken out from the human body RAM immediately loses the Power supply from the human body; thus information in the RAM is lost and therefore is useless for the kidnappers. CONCLUSION The Cyber Future Infotech will be implanted in our bodies. A chip implanted somewhere in human bodies might serve as a combination of credit card, passport, driver's license, personal diary. No longer would it be needed to worry about losing the credit cards while traveling. A chip inserted into human bodies might also give us extra mental power. The really fascinating idea is under fast track research "but we're close. The day in which we have chips embedded in our skins is not too far from now. "Th is is science fiction stuff." This is a true example to prove science really starts with fiction.
Reply
#2
[attachment=2340]
Seminar Report
On
BIO-CHIP
ABSTRACT
The development of biochips is a major thrust of the rapidly growing biotechnology industry, which encompasses a very diverse range of research efforts including genomics, proteomics, computational biology, and pharmaceuticals, among other activities. Advances in these areas are giving scientists new methods for unraveling the complex biochemical processes occurring inside cells, with the larger goal of understanding and treating human diseases. At the same time, the semiconductor industry has been steadily perfecting the science of microminiaturization. The merging of these two fields in recent years has enabled biotechnologists to begin packing their traditionally bulky sensing tools into smaller and smaller spaces, onto so-called biochips. These chips are essentially miniaturized laboratories that can perform hundreds or thousands of simultaneous biochemical reactions. Biochips enable researchers to quickly screen large numbers of biological analytes for a variety of purposes, from disease diagnosis to detection of bioterrorism agents
INTRODUCTION
Most of us won't like the idea of implanting a biochip in our body that identifies us uniquely and can be used to track our location. That would be a major loss of privacy. But there is a flip side to this! Such biochips could help agencies to locate lost children, downed soldiers and wandering Alzheimer's patients.
The human body is the next big target of chipmakers. It won't be long before biochip implants will come to the rescue of sick, or those who are handicapped in someway. Large amount of money and research has already gone into this area of technology. Anyway, such implants have already experimented with. A few US companies are selling both chips and their detectors. The chips are of size of an uncooked grain of rice, small enough to be injected under the skin using a syringe needle. They respond to a signal from the detector, held just a few feet away, by transmitting an identification number. This number is then compared with the database listings of register pets. Daniel Man, a plastic surgeon in private practice in Florida, holds the patent on a more powerful device: a chip that would enable lost humans to be tracked by satellite.

BIOCHIP DEFINITION
A biochip is a collection of miniaturized test sites (micro arrays) arranged on a solid substrate that permits many tests to be performed at the same time in order to get higher throughput and speed. Typically, a biochip's surface area is not longer than a fingernail. Like a computer chip that can perform millions of mathematical operation in one second, a biochip can perform thousands of biological operations, such as decoding genes, in a few seconds.
A genetic biochip is designed to "freeze" into place the structures of many short strands of DNA (deoxyribonucleic acid), the basic chemical instruction that determines the characteristics of an organism. Effectively, it is used as a kind of "test tube" for real chemical samples.
A specifically designed microscope can determine where the sample hybridized with
DNA strands in the biochip. Biochips helped to dramatically increase the speed of the
identification of the estimated 80,000 genes in human DNA, in the world wide research
collaboration known as the Human Genome Project. The microchip is described as a
sort of "word search" function that can quickly sequence DNA.
In addition to genetic applications, the biochip is being used in toxicological, protein,
and biochemical research. Biochips can also be used to rapidly detect chemical agents
used in biological warfare so that defensive measures can be taken.
Motorola, Hitachi, IBM, Texas Instruments have entered into the biochip business.
STRUCTURE AND WORKING OF AN ALREADY IMPLANTED SYSTEM
The biochip implants system consists of two components: a transponder and a reader or scanner. The transponder is the actual biochip implant. The biochip system is radio frequency identification (RFID) system, using low-frequency radio signals to communicate between the biochip and reader. The reading range or activation range, between reader and biochip is small, normally between 2 and 12 inches.

The transponder
The transponder is the actual biochip implant. It is a passive transponder, meaning it contains no battery or energy of its own. In comparison, an active transponder would provide its own energy source, normally a small battery. Because the passive contains no battery, or nothing to wear out, it has a very long life up to 99 years, and no maintenance. Being passive, it is inactive until the reader activates it by sending it a low-power electrical charge. The reader reads or scans the implanted biochip and receives back data (in this case an identification number) from the biochips. The communication between biochip and reader is via low-frequency radio waves. Since the communication is via very low frequency radio waves it is nit at all harmful to the human body.
The biochip-transponder consists of four parts; computer microchip, antenna coil, capacitor and the glass capsule.





Computer microchips
The microchip stores a unique identification number from 10 to 15 digits long. The storage capacity of the current microchips is limited, capable of storing only a single ID number. AVID (American Veterinary Identification Devices), claims their chips, using an
nnn-nnn-nnn format, has the capability of over 70 trillion unique numbers. The unique ID number is "etched" or encoded via a laser onto the surface of the microchip before assembly. Once the number is encoded it is impossible to alter. The microchip also contains the electronic circuitry necessary to transmit the ID number to the "reader".

BIOCHIP & SYRINGE
Antenna Coil
This is normally a simple, coil of copper wire around a ferrite or iron core. This tiny, primitive, radio antenna receives and sends signals from the reader or scanner.

Tuning Capacitor
The capacitor stores the small electrical charge (less than 1/1000 of a watt) sent by the reader or scanner, which activates the transponder. This "activation" allows the transponder to send back the ID number encoded in the computer chip. Because "radio waves" are utilized to communicate between the transponder and reader, the capacitor is tuned to the same frequency as the reader.
Glass Capsule
The glass capsule "houses" the microchip, antenna coil and capacitor. It is a small capsule, the smallest measuring 11 mm in length and 2 mm in diameter, about the size of an uncooked grain of rice. The capsule is made of biocompatible material such as soda lime glass.
After assembly, the capsule is hermetically (air-tight) sealed, so no bodily fluids can touch the electronics inside. Because the glass is very smooth and susceptible to movement, a material such as a polypropylene polymer sheath is attached to one end of the capsule. This sheath provides a compatible surface which the boldly tissue fibres bond or interconnect, resulting in a permanent placement of the biochip. The biochip is inserted into the subject with a hypodermic syringe. Injection is safe and simple, comparable to common vaccines. Anaesthesia is not required nor recommended. In dogs and cats, the biochip is usually injected behind the neck between the shoulder blades.

The reader
The reader consists of an "exciter coil" which creates an electromagnetic field that, via radio signals, provides the necessary energy (less than 1/1000 of a watt) to "excite" or "activate" the implanted biochip. The reader also carries a receiving
coil that receives the transmitted code or ID number sent back from the "activated" implanted biochip. This all takes place very fast, in milliseconds. The reader also contains the software and components to decode the received code and display the result in an LCD display. The reader can include a RS-232 port to attach a computer.
How it works
The reader generates a low-power, electromagnetic field, in this case via radio signals, which "activates'' the implanted biochip. This "activation" enables the biochip to send the ID code back to the reader via radio signals. The reader amplifies the received code, converts it to digital format, decodes and displays the ID number on the reader's LCD display. The reader must normally be between 2 and 12 inches near the biochip to
communicate. The reader and biochip can communicate through most materials, except metal.

BIOCHIPS CURRENTLY UNDER DEVELOPMENT
1. Chips that follow footsteps
2. Glucose level detectors
3. Oxy sensors
4. Brain surgery with an on-off switch
5. Adding sound to life
6. Experiments with lost sight
Chips that follow footsteps
The civil liberties debate over biochips has obscured their more ethically benign and medically useful applications. Medical researchers have been working to integrate chips and people for many years, often plucking devices from well known electronic appliances. Jaffrey Hausdorff of the Beth Israel Deaconess Medical Centre in Boston has used the type of pressure sensitive resistors found in the buttons of a microwave oven as stride timers. He places one sensor in the heel of a shoe, and one in the toe, adds a computer to the ankle to calculate the duration of each stride. "Young, healthy subjects can regulate the duration of each step very accurately," he says. But elderly patients prone to frequent falls have extremely variable stride times, a flag that could indicate the need for more strengthening exercises or a change in medication. Hausdorff is also using the system to determine the success of a treatment for congestive heart failure. By monitoring the number of strides that a person takes, can directly measure the patient's activity level, bypassing the often-flowed estimate made by the patient.
Glucose level detectors
Diabetics currently use a skin prick and a handheld blood test, and then medicate themselves with the required amount of insulin. The system is simple and works well, but the need to draw blood means that most diabetics do not test themselves as often as they should. The new S4MS chip will simply sit under the skin, sense the glucose level, and send the result back out by radio frequency communication.
A light emitting diode starts off the detection process. The light that it produces hits a fluorescent chemical: one that absorbs the incoming light and re-emits it at a longer wavelength. The longer wavelength of light is detected, and the result is send to a control panel outside the body. Glucose is detected because the sugar reduces the amount of light that a fluorescent chemical re-emits. The more glucose is there the less light that is detected.
S4MS is still developing the perfect fluorescent chemical, but the key design innovation of the S4MS chip has been fully worked out. The idea is simple: the LED is sitting in a sea of fluorescent molecules. In most detectors the light source is far away from the fluorescent molecules, and the inefficiencies that come with that mean more power and larger devices. The prototype S4MS chip uses a 22 microwatt LED, almost forty times less powerful than a tiny power-on buttons on a computer keyboard. The low power requirements mean that energy can be supplied from outside, by a process called induction. The fluorescent detection itself does not consume any chemicals or proteins, so the device is self sustaining.

O

o *
o

LED

FLUORESCENT MOLECULES


OPTICAL FILTER
PHOTODIODE DETECTOR
THE S4MS CHIP SENSING OXYGEN OR GLOUCOSE Oxy Sensors:
A working model of an oxy sensor uses the same layout. With its current circuitry, it is about the size of a large shirt button but the final silicon wafer will be less than a millimetre square. The oxygen sensors will be useful not only to monitor breathing inside intensive care units, but also to check that packages of food, or containers of semiconductors stored under nitrogen gas remain airtight.
Another version of an oxygen sensing chip currently under development sends light pulses out into the body. The light absorbed to varying extends, depending on how much oxygen is carried in the blood, and this chip detects the light that is left. The rushes of blood pumped by the heart are also detected, so the same chip is a pulse
monitor. A number of companies already make large scale versions of such detectors. The transition of certain semiconductors to their conducting state is inherently sensitive to temperature, so designing the sensor was simple enough. With some miniature radio frequency transmitters, and foam-rubber earplugs to hold the chip in place, the device is

complete. Applications range from sick children, to chemotherapy patients who can be plagued by sudden rises in body temperature in response to their anti-cancer drugs.
Brain surgery with an on-off switch:
Sensing and measuring is one thing, but can we switch the body on and off? Heart pacemakers use the crude approach: large jolts of electricity to synchronize the pumping of the heart. The electric pulses of Activa implant, made by US-based Medtronic's Inc., are directed not at the heart but at the brain. They turn off brain signals that cause the uncontrolled movements, or tremors, associated with disease such as Parkinson's.


Drug therapy of Parkinson's disease aims to replace the brain messenger dopamine, a product of brain cells that are dying. But eventually the drug's effects wear off, and the erratic movements come charging back.
The Activa implant is a new alternative that uses high-frequency electric pulses to reversibly shut off the thalamus. The implantation surgery is far less traumatic than thalamatomy, and if there are any post-operative problems the stimulator can simply be turned off. The implant primarily interferes with aberrant brain functioning.
Adding sound to life
The most ambitious bioengineers are today trying to add back brain functions, restoring sight and sound where there was darkness and silence. The success story in this field is the cochlear implant. Most hearing aids are glorified amplifiers, but

the cochlear implant is for patients who have lost the hair cells that detect sound waves. For these patients no amount of amplification is enough.

THE CIRCUITRY OF THE IMPLANTED PART OF THE COCHLEAR
IMPLANT
The cochlear implant delivers electrical pulses directly to the nerve cells in the cochlea, the spiral-shaped structure that translates sound in to nerve pulses. In normal hearing individuals, sound waves set up vibrations in the walls of the cochlea, and hair cells detect these vibrations. High-frequency notes vibrate nearer the base of cochlea, while low frequency notes nearer the top of the spiral. The implant mimics the job of the hair cells. It splits the incoming noises into a number of channels (typically eight) and then stimulates the appropriate part of the cochlea.
The two most successful cochlear implants are 'Clarion' and 'Nucleus'. Experiments with lost sight
With the ear at least partially conquered, the next logical target is the eye. Several groups are working on the implantable chips that mimic the action of photoreceptors, the light-sensing cells at the back of the eye. Photoreceptors are lost in retinitis

pigmentosa, a genetic disease and in age related macular degeneration, the most common reason for loss sight in the developed world. Joseph Rizzo of the Massachusetts Eye and Ear
Infirmary, and John Wyatt of Massachusetts Institute of Technology have made a twenty electrode lmm-square chip, and implanted it at the back of rabbit's eyes. The original chip, with the thickness of human hair, put too much stress on the eye, so the new version is ten times thinner. The final setup will include a fancy camera mounted a pair of glasses. The camera will detect and encode the scene, then send it into the eye as a laser pulse, with the laser also providing the energy to drive the chip. Rizzo has conformed that his tiny array of light receivers (photodiodes) can generate enough electricity needed to run the chip. He has also found that the
amount of electricity needed to fire a nerve cell into action is 100-fold lower than in the ear, so the currents can be smaller, and the electrodes more closely spaced. For now the power supply comes from a wire inserted directly in the eye and, using this device, signals reaches the brain.
Eugene de Jaun of Hopkins Wilmer Eye Institute is trying electrodes, electrodes inserted directly in to the eyes, are large and somewhat crude. But his result has been startling. Completely blind patients have seen well-defined flashes, which change in position and brightness as de Jaun changes the position of the electrode or amount of current.
In his most recent experiments, patients have identified simple shapes outlined by multiple electrodes. In one US project chips are implanted on the surface of the retina, the structure at the back of the eyes. The project is putting its implants at the back of the retina, where the photoreceptors are normally found.

THE AGILENT 2100 BIOANALYZER
The Agilent 2100 bio analyzer is the industry's only platform with the ability to analyze DNA, RNA, proteins and cells. Through lab-on-a-chip technology the 2100 bio analyzer integrates sample handling, separation, detection and data analysis onto one platform. It moves labs beyond messy, time consuming gel preparation and the subjective results associated with electrophoresis. And now, with our second generation 2100 bio analyzer, we have integrated an easier way to acquire cell based parameters from as few as 20,000 cells per sample.
The process is simple: load sample, run analysis, and view data. The 2100 bio analyzer is designed to streamline the processes of RNA isolation, gene expression analysis, protein expression, protein purification and more. One platform for entire workflow!
BIOCHIPS IN NONINFECTIOUS DISEASES Biochips and Proteomics
Biochip technology was largely established by the development of micro array biochips for genomics research. The emergence of the biochip was perhaps an inevitable development, an expansion of existing chemistries and concepts into the information rich world of genomics. The Gene Chip, developed at Affymax, remains the best known example of a biochip.
The essential property of a biochip is the use of solid phase support and interfacial chemistry to capture molecules from a sample and present them for analysis. The use of a solid support provides the separation and isolation of an analyst, and creates the opportunity for high density micro arrays of sampling sites. Combined with scalable production techniques, often borrowed from semiconductor fabrication, it also offers the potential of high sample throughput. There are no absolute restriction on the types of molecules that can be analyzed using a biochip, only technical problems related to binding, retention and assay.
With the maturing of genomics, some limitations of genome-based research have become apparent. Although extremely useful, characterization of a cell based upon its genes or gene transcripts is only an indirect view. From an engineering perspective, the complete state of cell might be defined by its molecular composition. While this includes DND, RNA, small molecules, and ions, this state is defined by proteins and peptides. Consequently, proteomics, the systems level study of proteins, represents a direct view of the state of a cell and its parent organism. With some abstraction, in clinical practice the protein profile obtained from a biological sample may be seen as synonymous to the phenotype and overall health state of a patient.

SELDI Protein Biochips
A major challenge in molecular biology, and particularly biochip development, is the detection of analytics present in mixtures at extremely low concentrations. Mixtures create limitations for the optical detection methods typically used with biochips, while low concentrations present problems when traditional separation techniques, such as 2¬D electrophoresis, are applied.
Surface Enhanced Laser Desorption Ionization Time-of-Flight Mass Spectroscopy (SELDI-TOF MS) was developed in the last decade as a powerful tool for overcoming these limitations, and is now being commercialized by several companies. With a SELDI protein biochip, proteins are captured at a target site using techniques that are similar to traditional chromatographic techniques, the analysis of the biochips, however, is quite different. Instead of optical detection, the bound proteins are combined with a charge and energy transfer molecule and assayed using laser desorption ionization time-of-flight mass spectroscopy. With TOF MS, it becomes possible to simultaneously identify hundreds or thousands of proteins and peptides bound to a single site. TOF MS is also capable of detecting analytics present in nanomole to sub-femtomole quantities, corresponding to mill molar to Pico molar
concentrations in a typical biological sample. Because of these capabilities, SELDI biochip surfaces can be prepared with diverse chemistries that have varying degrees of protein-binding specificity, and their selectivity may be further enhanced through variations in protein capture and retention protocols.
Bioinformatics with SELDI Biochips
In practice, the SELDI-TOF technique provides mass spectra of proteins unmatched in both its sensitivity and its ability to identify hundreds of proteins simultaneously. A collection of protein mass spectra can be obtained from diverse biochip surfaces, using varied protein binding protocols, creating a protein map. The information in
this protein map combines protein molecular weight with chemical knowledge derived from the protein binding interactions at the biochip surface.

Protein maps are rich descriptions of the biological sample, which characterize the psychological state of a patient. Their information destiny and complexity often defies simpler linear analysis. In order to best utilize this data, LumiCyte has developed software that incorporates the latest techniques for data base mining, pattern recognition, and artificial intelligence. Some of the challenges include managing large volume data sets, searching for reproducible patters in data, which has variable alignment and instrument artefacts, and dealing with the inherent variability present in biological samples. Classification and analysis methods that have been successful include both trained artificial intelligence tools, such as support vector machines and genetic algorithms, as well as unsupervised cluster analysis.
Applying these tools to the differential analysis of protein maps rapidly uncovers the extent and nature of protein variations. This analysis can be applied to samples from multiple patients of differing phenotypes, where it leads to early detection of disease, even in asymptomatic patients. It also provides a powerful tool for discriminating between physiologically distinct diseases that present similar or even identical symptoms. With samples from a single patient, analysis of protein maps reveals early onset of disease, disease progression, and the patient's response to therapy.
Challenges of protein biochips
A number of challenges remain that define the current boundaries of SELDI biochip technology. For physical scientists, the optimization of surfaces that capture and present proteins is an ongoing activity, and the development of TOF MS for detection over an even wider dynamic range is essential to find rare, important proteins in the presence of ubiquitous, common proteins. For biological scientists, sequencing proteins that are discovered with SELDI-TOF MS and interpreting the
complex network of revealed proteins are tasks that expand with every new sample set. For applied mathematicians and software engineers, creating new pattern recognition tools is important as we attempt to identify weaker and weaker signals in the protein map capture.

DNA BIOCHIPS
A new DNA biochip developed by Tuan Vo-Dinh and colleagues at the Department of Energy's (DOE) Oak Ridge National Laboratory (ORNL) could revolutionize the way the medical profession performs tests on blood. Instead of patient having to wait several days for the results form a laboratory, they are virtually immediate with the matchbox-sized biochip. And it requires less blood with no sacrifice on accuracy. In addition to time savings, the DNA biochip eliminates the needs for radioactive labels used for detection. This greatly reduces cost and potential health effects to technicians and lab workers handling samples and performing tests. It also reduces disposal costs because chemically labelled blood must be handled according to strict regulations. To be useful for detecting compounds in a real-life sample, a biosensor must be extremely sensitive and able to distinguish between, for example, a bacteria, virus or chemical or biological species. ORNL's DNA biochip does that. Unlike other biosensors based on enzyme and antibody probes, The DNA biochip is a gene probe-based biosensor.
CONCLUSION
Within ten years you will have a biochip implanted in your head consisting of financial status, employment and medical records.
Even in a grocery store, sensor will read the credit chip and will automatically debit the account for purchase.
A biochip implanted in our body can serve as a combination of credit ca5rd, passport, driver's license and personal diary. And there is nothing to worry about losing them.
It is said that by 2008, all members of typical American family including there pets will have microchips under their skin with ID and medical data

REFERENCES
¢ eurobiochips.com
¢ whatisdefinition
¢ drugandmarket.com
¢ biochips.org
¢ knowledgefoundation.com
¢ bioarraynews.com
¢ biochips.ifrance.com
Reply
#3
please read http://studentbank.in/report-BIOCHIPS--5398 for more about biochips seminar report and presentations
Reply
#4
hai friends please send me the biochip power point presentation please i have a seminar on monday please send me today
Reply
#5

[attachment=11264]
ABSTRACT
A biochip is a collection of miniaturized test sites (microarrays) arranged on a solid substrate that permits many tests to be performed at the same time in order to achieve higher throughput and speed. Like a computer chip that can perform millions of mathematical operations in one second, a biochip can perform thousands of biological reactions, such as decoding genes, in a few seconds. Biochips helped to dramatically accelerate the identification of the estimated 80,000 genes in human DNA, an ongoing world-wide research collaboration known as the Human genome project. Developing a biochip plat-form incorporates electronics for addressing, reading out, sensing and controlling temperature and, in addition, a handheld analyzer capable of multiparameter identification. The biochip platform can be plugged in a peripheric standard bus of the analyzer device or communicate through a wireless channel. Biochip technology has emerged from the fusion of biotechnology and micro/nanofabrication technology. Biochips enable us to realize revolutionary new bioanalysis systems that can directly manipulate and analyze the micro/nano-scale world of biomolecules, organelles and cells.
INTRODUCTION
What is a biochip?
A biochip is a collection of miniaturized test sites (microarrays) arranged on a solid substrate that permits many tests to be performed at the same time in order to achieve higher throughput and speed. Typically, a biochip's surface area is no larger than a fingernail. Like a computer chip that can perform millions of mathematical operations in one second, a biochip can perform thousands of biological reactions, such as decoding genes, in a few seconds. Biochip is a broad term indicating the use of microchip technology in molecular biology and can be defined as arrays of selected biomolecules immobilized on a surface. Biochip will also be used in animal and plant breeding, and in the monitoring of foods and the environment. Biochip is a small-scale device, analogous to an integrated circuit, constructed of or used to analyze organic molecules associated with living organisms. One type of theoretical biochip is a small device constructed of large organic molecules, such as proteins, and capable of performing the functions (data storage, processing) of an electronic computer. The other type of biochip is a small device capable of performing rapid, small-scale biochemical reactions for the purpose of identifying gene sequences, environmental pollutants, airborne toxins, or other biochemical constituents.
HISTORY/GENERATION
The development of biochips has a long history, starting with early work on the underlying sensor technology. One of the first portable, chemistry-based sensors was the glass pH electrode, invented in 1922 by Hughes (Hughes, 1922). Measurement of pH was accomplished by detecting the potential difference developed across a thin glass membrane selective to the permeation of hydrogen ions; this selectivity was achieved by exchanges between H+ and SiO sites in the glass. The basic concept of using exchange sites to create perm selective membranes was used to develop other ion sensors in subsequent years. For example, a K+ sensor was produced by incorporating valinomycin into a thin membrane (Schultz, 1996). Over thirty years elapsed before the first true biosensor (i.e. a sensor utilizing biological molecules) emerged. In 1956, Leland Clark published a paper on an oxygen sensing electrode(Clark, 1956_41). This device became the basis for a glucose sensor developed in 1962 by Clark and colleague Lyons which utilized glucose oxidase molecules embedded in a dialysis membrane (Clark, 1962). The enzyme functioned in the presence of glucose to decrease the amount of oxygen available to the oxygen electrode, thereby relating oxygen levels to glucose concentration. This and similar biosensors became known as enzyme electrodes, and are still in use today.
In 1953, Watson and Crick announced their discovery of the now familiar double helix structure of DNA molecules and set the stage for genetics research that continues to the present day (Nelson, 2000). The development of sequencing techniques in 1977 by Gilbert (Maxam, 1977) and Sanger (Sanger, 1977) (working separately) enabled researchers to directly read the genetic codes that provide instructions for protein synthesis. This research showed how hybridization of complementary single oligonucleotide strands could be used as a basis for DNA sensing. Two additional developments enabled the technology used in modern DNA-based biosensors. First, in 1983 Kary Mullis invented the polymerase chain reaction (PCR) technique (Nelson, 2000), a method for amplifying DNA concentrations. This discovery made possible the detection of extremely small quantities of DNA in samples. Second, in 1986 Hood and co-workers devised a method to label DNA molecules with fluorescent tags instead of radiolabels (Smith, 1986), thus enabling hybridization experiments to be observed optically.
The rapid technological advances of the biochemistry and semiconductor fields in the 1980s led to the large scale development of biochips in the 1990s. At this time, it became clear that biochips were largely a "platform" technology which consisted of several separate, yet integrated components. Figure 1 shows the make up of a typical biochip platform. The actual sensing component (or "chip") is just one piece of a complete analysis system. Transduction must be done to translate the actual sensing event (DNA binding, oxidation/reduction, etc.) into a format understandable by a computer (voltage, light intensity, mass, etc.), which then enables additional analysis and processing to produce a final, human-readable output. The multiple technologies needed to make a successful biochip — from sensing chemistry, to microarraying, to signal processing — require a true multidisciplinary approach, making the barrier to entry steep. One of the first commercial biochips was introduced by Affymetrix. Their "GeneChip" products contain thousands of individual DNA sensors for use in sensing defects, or single nucleotide polymorphisms (SNPs), in genes such as p53 (a tumor suppressor) and BRCA1 and BRCA2 (related to breast cancer) (Cheng, 2001). The chips are produced using microlithography techniques traditionally used to fabricate integrated circuits
Reply

Important Note..!

If you are not satisfied with above reply ,..Please

ASK HERE

So that we will collect data for you and will made reply to the request....OR try below "QUICK REPLY" box to add a reply to this page
Popular Searches: biochips and their uses, biochips seminar blockdiagram, biochips seminar report pdf, taba 1962, biochips ppt, aitmg clark, biochips seminar ppt free download,

[-]
Quick Reply
Message
Type your reply to this message here.

Image Verification
Please enter the text contained within the image into the text box below it. This process is used to prevent automated spam bots.
Image Verification
(case insensitive)

Possibly Related Threads...
Thread Author Replies Views Last Post
  BIOCHIPS seminar class 0 1,247 16-02-2011, 11:12 AM
Last Post: seminar class
  Biochips-Seminar Computer Science Clay 2 4,309 28-06-2010, 07:31 AM
Last Post: computer science topics
  Biochips computer science crazy 1 2,348 16-03-2010, 03:13 PM
Last Post: seminar topics

Forum Jump: